Draft Report for Baseline
Investigation
of Managing Phragmites australis
in the Edwin B. Forsythe
National Wildlife Refuge
Allison Brown, Hongbing Sun
Department of Geological and Marine Sciences
Department of Biology, Rider University
ABSTRACT
Six macroplots were established in the wetland complex at the Edwin
B. Forsythe National Wildlife refuge, Brigantine Division, in an effort
to monitor the effects of several different management strategies on Phragmites
australis (Common Reed). The proposed treatments include 1) controlled
burn + tidal enhancement (no glyphosate); 2) glyphosate application + controlled
burn + tidal enhancement; 3) Tidal enhancement alone (no burn or glyphosate);
4) glyphosate application + tidal enhancement (no burn); 5) no treatment;
and 6) no treatment (6Leeds). The pre-treatment baseline conditions described
for these macroplots included Phragmites density and height as well
as sediment and porewater characteristics. The total mean height of full-grown
plants from individual measurements for all plots was 179 cm
" 37, ranging from 82 cm - 387 cm. The total mean density was 87
plants m-2, ranging from 10 to 294 m-2. The sediment profiles of hydric
soil in the marsh were characterized by three layers in the top 3 meters:
muddy organic debris, organic mud and clayey mud. The organic layer (top
60 cm) was better aerated in the Phragmites marsh compared to the
Spartina marsh which had much thicker, poorly aerated organic layers.
Sediments were rich in organic matter, quartz and feldspar. Accessory clay
minerals in the soil included illite, smectite, and kaolinite. During the
measuring period of January to March of 1999, porewater pH ranged from
3.4 to 5.4 in the Phragmites-marsh and from 6.7 to 8.4 in the Spartina
marsh. Salinity ranged from 1 to 7 ppt in the Phragmites-marsh
and from 22 to 36 ppt in the Spartina marsh. In the Spartina
marsh, porewater levels of calcium (792 - 6960 ppm) and zinc (4.3 - 37.2
ppm) were extremely high, while porewater levels of magnesium (468 - 1330
ppm) and potassium (102 - 424 ppm) were more within the range reported
for sea water. For the most part, the porewater concentration of the elements
potassium (13 - 119 ppm), calcium (115 - 822 ppm), magnesium (135 - 782
ppm), and zinc (0.3 - 4.59 ppm)were more dilute in the the Phragmites-marsh.
Calcium and zinc levels were strikingly high in one subunit of the East
Pool which was dominated by Iva frutescens and Spartina patens.
Such regional variations in the geochemical condition of the East Pool
soil may preclude the growth of Phragmites and, as such, should
be the focus of future research.
INTRODUCTION
Phragmites australis is perhaps the most widespread plant in
the world (Tucker, 1990). A member of the grass family, this plant is characterized
by a thick stalk with alternating leaf blades and plumose inflorescence.
It principally relies on vegetative reproduction producing adventitious
roots (up to 7 feet deep) and shoots from an underground rhizome. It is
because of its broad ecological amplitude and tolerance to a wide range
of extremes in pH, salinity, flooding, and soil nutrients that this plant
is so successful. Although native to North America, Phragmites has
the potential for becoming invasive partcularly in disturbed or altered
environments. It can reduce habitat value for water fowl and shorebirds,
discourage the establishment of native plant species, alter the porewater
status of a system, and contribute to visual blight. Once the plant gets
established, it can be very difficult to eradicate.
Phragmites has become a nuisance at the Edwin B. Forsythe National
Wildlife Refuge (EBFNWR) in Brigantine, New Jersey. It is estimated that
Phragmites covers nearly 50% of the vegetated area in three impoundments
at the refuge. The impoundments include the East Pool (535 acres), the
Southwest Pool (~ 300 acres) and the Northwest Pool (~600 acres). Thus
far Phragmites has been managed with glyphosate (4 pt level), controlled
burns followed by flooding, and mowing. The effort to control the plant
has been very costly with few benefits realized as the plant continues
to grow and spread. Nowhere is this more evident than in the East Pool
where visual comparison with an early photo of the site (1963) shows the
dramatic increase in Phragmites.
Tidal enhancement has been shown to be an effective way to reduce Phragmites
in degraded salt marshes. At the Pine Creek Salt Marshes in Fairfield,
Connecticut, restored tidal flow to a 25 acre degraded salt marsh resulted
in a 6 foot reduction in height and 90% reduction in stem density of Phragmites
after four growing seasons (Tiner, May 1997). The project managers anticipate
complete eradication of Phragmites after 10 - 12 post treatment
years. To boost the effectiveness and speed with which Phragmites
populations are reduced, tidal enhancement may be combined with other treatments
including glyphosate applications and/or controlled burns. When tidal enhancement
was combined with a controlled burn at Pine Creek Salt Marshes, Phragmites
height was reduced 50% each year until the fuel was exhausted by the fourth
year (Tiner, May 1997).
At the EBFNWR, land managers would like to identify the most cost effective
means of controlling Phragmites . For this purpose, a combination
of treatments was proposed (" glyphosate,
" burn, " tidal enrichment) for
a subset of the Phragmites population. The primary objective of
the first phase of this project was to establish 6 macroplots within the
wetland complex at EBFNWR-Brigantine Division for documenting pre-and post-treatment
plant growth and abiotic conditions. The second objective was to measure
pre-treatment baseline conditions including Phragmites density and
height as well as sediment and porewater geochemical characteristics in
the East Pool (treatment area), Northwest Pool(control area), and adjacent
Spartina marsh(control area). A final objective was to relate sediment
and geochemical conditions to Phragmites in the study area.
METHODS
-
Experimental Design
Six macroplots were located in the wetland complex in order to identify
pre-treatment Phragmites growth and porewater geochemical characteristics
(Figure 1--map showing macroplot locations). The macroplots were assigned
the following treatments: 1) controlled burn + tidal enhancement (no glyphosate)
(3EPL1-5); 2) glyphosate application + controlled burn + tidal enhancement
(1EPA - G); 3) Tidal enhancement alone (no burn or glyphosate) (4EPH-J);
4) glyphosate application + tidal enhancement (no burn) (2EP-K); 5) no
treatment (5NWA-C); and 6) no treatment (6Leeds). The macroplots were subdivided
into one to five subunits (SU?s). Subunits
were assigned in areas that were most accessible and that represented target
treatment zones. Most of the subuits were monumented with labeled t-stakes
(see recommendations).
-
Plant Growth Measurements
Phragmites density was estimated in all macroplots (except 6Leeds--no
Phragmites) on different sampling dates (Beginning 12/29/98, ending
3/17/99). A pilot survey in SU EP-L and NWA-C identified the most efficient
sampling design given the limited budget and access constraints. Densities
were measured in a minimum of 8--0.5 x 1M vegetation frames as the number
of culms found within the frame (or 4--1m2 frames) in each SU. The vegetation
frame was placed sequentially along a longitudal axis in the center of
each patch of Phragmites (to minimize edge effects). The observers
avoided walking in the region which was being sampled. A total of 12 SU?s
were sampled in the East Pool macroplots and three SU?s
were sampled in the Northwest Pool.
Plant height was measured in all macroplots except EP-L and 6 Leeds.
A total of 24 random measurements were made per SU sampled (3 per frame)
for a total of 168 height estimates for the East Pool and 72 height estimates
for the Northwest Pool. Plants were measured from the base of the culm
to the tip of the inflorescence (only plants with intact inflorescences
should be used).
-
Sediment Profiles
Approximately seven freshwater soil cores each around 2.5 cm wide x
3.5 m deep were drilled with manual soil augers in the East Pool (Macroplot
2) on January 19, 1999. Methods for soil analysis followed Brady and Weil
(1998). Several additional cores were sampled in the Northwest Pool (Macroplot
5) and in the Spartina marsh (Leeds-Macroplot 6) on February 13,
1999. The soil texture and color of extracted cores were described in situ.
Hue, value, and chroma were evaluated with the color chips in the Munsell
Color Book. Soil samples were bagged at approximately 30 cm each for further
laboratory analysis. The sediment profiles from the freshwater impoundments
were compared with those from the Spartina marsh.
-
Porewater Geochemistry
Porewater salinity was measured using a hand-held refractometer. PH
was measured with a portable pH meter. Measurements were made on 1/19/99,
2/13/99 and 2/26/99 in the East Pool, Northwest Pool, and in the adjacent
Spartina marsh. In addition, several measurements were made in the
channels surrounding the East and West pools and the Spartina marsh.
Porewater samples were collected on the dates above for the quantitative
analysis of metallic elements in solution. Samples were filtered, diluted
with double distilled H20 (samples from freshwater ponds were
diluted by 10x, while samples from salt water marsh were diluted by 100x),
and analyzed with a Baird ICP 2070 Sequential Plasma Spectrometer. The
instrument was calibrated with Baird?s
#2 Standard solution to quantify K, Ca, Fe, Mg, and Zn elements in solution.
Three cations K, Ca and Mg of the six essential elements in the macronutrient
and two cations Fe and Zn of micronutrients for plant growth were analyzed.
K, Ca and Mg also reflect the alkalinity and acidity of the soil water.
-
Sediment Mineral Content
Both organic and mineral parts of the soil were analyzed. The organic
contents of a few samples were analyzed in the lab by oven combustion (see
attachment for detailed method) to compare and calibrate the visually estimated
organic percentage in the soil profile. The qualitative mineral contents
of the soils were determined through x-ray diffraction method. Multiple
samples of the soil were dried in the oven and ground to powder. Slides
were made from the powdered soil before the 2-theta range x-ray test.
-
Statistical Analyses
One-way ANOVA power tests were performed to identify sample size and
mininum detectable difference in plant density and height needed to conclude
whether a given treatment was effective or not (Elzinga et al., 1999; Zar,
1984). For the ICP data, the instrument accuracy was estimated for each
element using the coefficient of variation. This value was obtained by
five repeated measures of an unknown during the course of the analysis.
Standard errors were also calculated for each element using the repeated
measure data. Data was plotted as single values for each sample locatation
RESULTS
-
Plant Growth Characteristics
Table 1 shows the mean plant heights and densities for each of the
macroplots in the study. The total mean height from individual measurements
for all plots (n = 195) was 179 cm " 37.
Heights ranged from 82 cm - 387 cm. The total mean density for all plots
( n = 150) was 87 plants m-2. Densities ranged from 10 to 294 m-2.
For plant height, it was determined that a minimum sample size of 24
measurements (in cm) per macroplot (8 per subunit) would be needed to have
a 90% probability of detecting a difference of 40 cm between the population
means ( = 0.05). A smaller detectable difference would require a larger
sample size (for example, a difference of 30 cm needs 48 measurements per
macroplot).
For plant density, it was determined that a minimum sample size of 36
quadrats (each 0.5 x 1M) per macroplot (12 per subunit) would be needed
to have a 84% probability of detecting a difference of 21 plants (using
a 0.5 x 1M quadrat) between population means (a = 0.05). This would require
at least a 50% post treatment reduction in density for us to conclude that
a particular treatment was effective. A smaller detectable difference would
require a larger sample size [ for example, a difference of 15 plants (35%
post treatment reduction) would require 72 quads (24 per subunit) per macroplot].
-
Sediment Profiles
Figures 2 and 3 show the soil cross-sectional profiles for the East and
Northwest pools as well as the Spartina marsh. These wetland areas
had saturated hydric soils (before March drawdown). Sediments in the freshwater
impoundments originated from delta-type deposits and are dominated by
silt- and clay-particle materials. Three types of layers could be recognized
in the top 3-meter of the soil: muddy organic debris, organic mud
and clayey mud (Figure 2). Occasional sand lens and broken shells existed
in the deeper layers. The top 60-cm of the soil was well aerated muddy
organic debris with more than 80% organic content (Figure 2). The organic
soil colors were black, gray and bluish gray, depending on the organic
and clayey content. The color of the organic debris was lighter in the
freshwater impoundment soils than the color of the organic debris in the
salt marsh soils (Figure 3). There were some variations in the thickness
of soil layer in the fresh water marsh. In general, the organic layers
in the salt marsh were much thicker, and poorly aerated (Figure 3). Most
of the organic debris was a half-decomposed, sticky material with a strong
H2S rotten-egg smell. At the bottom of the organic debris was
the coarse sandy layer. Salt marsh soils appeared to follow a transgressive
sequence.
-
Porewater Chemistry
Table 2 shows the pH and salinity data for each of the sites and sampling
dates. In general, porewater pH was fairly low in the impoundments ranging
from 3.41 to 5.35 in the East pool (measured 1/19/99) and 4.3 to 5.0 in
the Northwest Pool (measured on 2/13/99). In the Spartina marsh,
pH levels ranged from 6.7 to 8.4 (1/19/99, 2/13/99) Salinity levels ranged
from 1 to 7 ppt in the East pool, from 8 to 10 in the Northwest Pool, and
from 22 to 36 ppt in the Spartina marsh. On 2/26/99, salinity levels
for the East Pool (East corner) were measured at 13 - 26 ppt.
Figures 4 to 8 show the concentrations of K, Ca, Mg, Zn, and Fe, in
porewater samples from the impoundments and adjacent Spartina marsh.
In general, for the first sampling period (1/19/99) K, Ca, and Mg levels
appeared to be highest in the tidal channel and Spartina marsh.
Zinc levels were high in the tidal channel but more dilute elsewhere. For
the second sampling periods (2/3 and 2/26/99), K, Ca, Mg, and Zn levels
were more dilute in the Spartina marsh samples.
-
Potassium (Figure 4)
The coefficient of variation for potassium ranged from 5 to 6% for
both sampling period data. During the first sampling period (1/19/99),
porewater levels of K ranged from 13 to 97 ppm in the East Pool and from
403 to 424 ppm in the Spartina marsh. During the second sampling
period (2/3 and 2/26/99), porewater levels of K ranged from 36 to 45 ppm
in the Northwest Pool, 36 to 119 ppm in the East Pool, and 102 to 155 ppm
in the Spartina marsh. Porewater levels of K were nearly 3 times
as dilute in the Spartina marsh during the second sampling period.
-
Calcium (Figure 5)
The coefficient of variation for calcium was 1% for both sampling period
data. During the first sampling period (1/19/99), porewater levels of Ca
ranged from 287 ppm to 822 ppm in the East Pool and from 2860 ppm to 6960
ppm in the Spartina marsh. During the second sampling period, porewater
levles of Ca ranged from 115 to 194 ppm in the Northwest Pool, 381 to 449
ppm in the East Pool and 792 to 899 ppm in the Spartina marsh. Calcium
levels were more than 3 times as dilute in the Spartina marsh samples
for the second sampling period.
-
Magnesium (Figure 6)
The coefficient of variation for magnesium was 1% for both sampling
periods. During the first sampling period, porewater levels of Mg ranged
from 158 to 442 ppm in the East Pool and from 1250 to 1330 ppm in Spartina
marsh. During the second sampling period, porewater levels of Mg ranged
from 135 to 143 ppm in the Northwest Pool, from 554 to 782 ppm in the East
Pool, and from 468 to 611 ppm in the Spartina marsh. Magnesium levels
were 2 times as dilute during the second sampling period.
-
Zinc (Figure 7)
The coefficient of variation for zinc was 3% for the first sample period
data and 5.5% for the second sample period data. During the first sampling
period, porewater levels of Zn ranged from 0.29 to 6.42 ppm in the East
Pool and 4.3 to 37.2 ppm in the Spartina marsh. During the second
sampling period, porewater levels of Zn ranged from 2.33 to 2.41 ppm in
the Northwest Pool, 1.86 to 4.59 ppm in the East Pool, and 2.50 to 8.40
ppm in the Spartina marsh. Zn levels were nearly 2 times as dilute
during the second sampling period.
-
Iron (Figure 8)
Data for iron levels in the system are difficult to interpret due to
the large coefficient of variation (68%) between replicates. The reason
for this probably has to do with the alteration of the oxidation status
of iron in solution. Future measurements of this element may require treating
samples upon collection (with anti-oxidants or acid).
-
Sediment Mineral Content
In general, the quartz mineral shows a strong peak in the x-ray 2-theta
spectra for all the samples (Figure 9). The amplitude of this peak indicates
abundance of quartz minerals. The second strongest peak in the samples
is feldspar. Na and K-rich feldspars are very abundant. The accessory clay
minerals include illite, smectite, and kaolinite (Figure 10). There might
be mixed layers of clay minerals.
DISCUSSION
At the EBFNWR, Brigantine Division, the average density of thePhragmites
australis patches surveyed was often less than 100 culms m-2. Indeed,
nine out the 15 patches surveyed could be classified as sparse stands (Hara
et al., 1993). The highest total densities recorded were for Macroplot
3 (East Pool, near the boathouse parking lot), while the lowest total density
was for Macroplot 2 (East Pool, near flood control stucture). Culm heights
were also relatively modest (Tiner, 1997), exceeding 12 feet in only one
location--Macroplot 5, in the Northwest Pool. Some of the variation in
density and height may reflect the time of year that the measurements were
taken, and the fact that the measurements were not made simultaneously.
Also, there is an inherent bias in the data based on the macroplot locations,
all of which were on the edge of the impoundments within access distance.
Patches located in the pools? interior
may have different characteristics. None-the-less, it would appear from
these results that what the plant lacks in density and height, it makes
up for in aerial cover, given the extant of its invasion in the impoundments
at Brigantine. A full ground survey and vegetation map is warranted to
give a more accurate estimate of the extant of the invasion of Phragmites
and and its threat on plant species diversity. Conclusions regarding post-treatment
sample size and methods will be presented in the section that follows this
discussion.
The deltaic deposits characteristic of the impoundents probably originated
with the deposition of sediments at the entrance of the river to the ocean.
There appeared to be a sandy layer underneath the clayey mud layer at a
depth below 3 meters. Lighter colored surface layers in the Phragmites-dominated
sediments suggested that they were better aerated than surface layers in
the salt marsh. Stems and rhizomes of Phragmites are equipped with
air spaces (Marks et al., 1994) that may contribute to the oxidation of
surface soils. The differences in the thickness of the organic/mud layers
reflects the water channel migration in the geological history of the marsh
land. The channel area might have thicker organic free layers than the
non-channel area. The paths of the historical migrating channels may be
revealed with more soil profile cross-section studies. The coarse sandy
layer characteristic of deeper soil horizons suggests a sand-dune condition
before the marshes were formed. Later on some organic debris was washed
ashore as the sea level rose, and then, the marsh started forming. The
transgressive sequence herein observed is inconsistent with the general
rising sea-level trend of the Atlantic Ocean in the area along New Jersey
coast (Sun et al., 1999).
Salinity is one of several factors considered important in the distribution
and vigour of Phragmites (Marks et al., 1994). In the East Pool,
porewater salinity levels during the winter months of February and March
approximated brackish conditions (2 - 5 ppt), except for one sampling date
when the maximum salinity level recorded was 26 ppt. This measurement was
made in the eastern corner of the East Pool (2/26/99) and was attributed
to a leak in a nearby flood control structure (Kelly Hogan, personal communication).
Salinity levels as high as 29 ppt have been reported for Phragmites
stands in New York state and on the Red Sea coast, levels as high as 40
ppt have been observed (Hocking et. al, 1983). Hellings and Gallagher (1992)
reported a significant reduction inPhragmites density, height, and
biomass when plants were inundated with seawater at 30 ppt. The cumulative
regrowth was also reduced when plants were cut and then flooded with brackish
water (Ibid, 1992). In Fairfield, Connecticut, a diked marsh was restored
to saltwater tidal action with a self-regulating tide gate (Marks et al.,
1994; Bongiorno et. al. 1984). Over three years time, plant height was
reduced by 1 to 3 feet. Plant density also showed a marked decline in one
year from 11.3 plants m-2 to 3.3 plants m-2. These researchers reported
the return of saltmarsh flora including Salicornia, Distichlis,
Spartina alterniflora, and S. patens. We may expect similar
results with tidal enhancement of the East Pool in Brigantine, although
it is essential to conduct a thorough species inventory prior to enhancement
since it is likely that brackish marsh species will be replaced with saltmarsh
species.
Phragmites typically flourishes in alkaline and brackish environments
(Marks et al., 1994; Haslam 1972, 1971), although there have been anecdotal
citings of it in highly acidic wetlands and mine tailings (Marks et al.,
1994). In the EBFNWR, Brigantine Division, the East Pool and Northwest
Pool impoundments were suprisingly acidic considering the proximity to
fairly alkaline tidal marshes. Freshwater wetlands associated with the
Trenton Marsh, New Jersey, typically have pH?s
no lower than 5.7 to 5.8 (Ronches, 1995). According to Hem (1992) low pH
may be attributed to several factors: 1) oxidation of sulfide minerals
with exposure to air; 2) presence of organic acids from petroleum residues;
3) low respiratory quotients in plants and soil microbes; and 4) accumulation
of organic material. In addition when kaolinite and montmorillonite minerals
are absent or poorly represented in clay soils, they may become acidic
due to the reduced buffering capacity of the soil (Tisdale et al. 1993).
At the Brigantine unit, pH was measured within the top 5 to 10 cm of soil
where leaf litter and organic debris had accumulated. Turnover of NH4-N
from leaf litter and animal wastes may also contribute to low pH as a consequence
of H+ production during nitrification. Plant roots can compound conditions
by removing cations in exchange for H+ (Ibid, 1993). If plants remove more
cations (Ca ++, Mg++, K+, and Na+)
than anions (Cl-, SO4=, NO3-,
H2PO4-), then soil acidity produced by nitrification
of NH4+ will increase.
Calcium levels in the salt water samples from Brigantine were 2 to 17
times as concentrated as the levels found in sea water which typically
contains 410 ppm calcium (Langmuir, 1997). The high calcium levels reported
during the first sampling period (1/19/99) possibly reflect precipitative
buildup in surface sediments. Zinc levels were also very high perhaps for
similar reasons. Curiously however, magnesium levels for this period were
very close to those reported for sea water which typically contains 1350
ppm. Potassium levels were only slightly higher than those reported for
sea water which contains 390 ppm (Langmuir, 1997). During the second sampling
period (2/3/99) both calcium and magnesium levels in the salt marsh were
5 times as dilute as the first sampling period. The ratio of magnesium:
calcium for both periods also deviated from the 3:1 proportions reported
for sea water (Langmuir, 1997). For the first sampling period, the ratios
were 1: 4 Mg: Ca and for the second sampling period they were 1: 2 Mg:
Ca. Potassium levels were 3 times as dilute for the second sampling period,
and Zinc levels were nearly 4 times as dilute. Some of these variations
between sampling periods may reflect sample size and location. Additional
samples from more salt marsh locations are needed to verify some of the
trends observed here.
For the most part, the porewater concentration of elements was more
dilute in the impoundments compared to the salt marsh. For example, calcium
levels were 3 to 13 times more dilute in the East Pool compared to the
salt marsh. This might be expected since sea water typically has more than
27 times as much Ca compared to fresh water (Langmuir, 1997). Calcium in
the soil solution typically ranges from 30 to 300 ppm--slightly lower than
our values (Tisdale et. al, 1993). Magnesium can be 340 times as concentrated
in sea water compared to freshwater, but at EBFNWR, the salt water levels
of magnesium were 5 times as concentrated during the first sampling period
and identical during the second sampling period. Elevated levels of magnesium
in the East Pool during the second sampling period may have been due to
a leak in a nearby flood control structure. Soil solution levels of magnesium
ranges from 5 - 50 ppm; our values were six to ten times higher than this.
Zinc levels were also extremely high--nearly 40 times as high as levels
found in the soil solution ( 2 to 70 ppb) (Tisdale et al., 1993). Potassium
levels typically range from 10 - 60 ppm in the soil solution, and can be
as high as 2400 ppm (Tisdale et al., 1993) suggesting that the values reported
for EBFNWR soils are not unusual.
It is interesting to note the elevated levels of calcium and zinc in
Macroplot 2--Subunit F which was not colonized by Phragmites, but
featured a fairly diverse assemblage of salt tolerant species including
Iva frutescens and Spartina patens.. Are other islands characterized
by this assemblage of species similar in porewater composition? To what
extent is colonization by Phragmites determined by calcium and zinc
in the soil solution? Is there some threshold of calcium or zinc which
would preclude growth by Phragmites and encourage colonization by
other species?
It is our observation that in general, due to the fine silt-, clay-sized
particles and abundant organic and clay minerals with a high CEC level,
the soil in east pool is a fertile ground for Phragmites to compete with
other vegetation types. The all-season sub-saturated hydric soil essentially
eliminates plants with roots that do not respire well in sub-saturated
conditions. The sufficient amount of macro-nutrient elements of K, Ca and
Mg and micro-nutrient elements of Fe and Zn may favor Phragmites. While
it is difficult to alter the soil mineral types in east pool, the geochemistry
condition might be altered to suppress the optimal conditions of Phragmites
growth such that other plants might thrive.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FOLLOW-UP
1. Install t-stakes or rebar at EP-L1-5, EP-C, EP-K, and 6Leeds. All
stakes should be permanently marked with tin labels and marine paint. Compass
locations and distances should be recorded with a GPS unit.
2. Establish a monitoring plan for tracking post-treatment change in
plant growth characteristics and porewater chemistry using the protocols
presented in this report.
3. Conduct a thorough plant species inventory of the treatment areas
and create a vegetation map showing extent of aerial cover of Phragmites.
4. Determine whether islands that are dominated by Iva frutescens
and Spartina patens are characterized by elevated levels of calcium
and zinc and whether this precludes colonization by Phragmites.
5. Collect additional geochemical data on the Spartina marsh
and transition zone of Phragmites to Spartina marsh for comparison
and understanding the geochemical controlling factors on the plant growth.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors want to thank Kelly Hogan and Paul Steblein from EBFNWR
for their help in initiating the project and spending many winter days
in the field with us for collecting soil and water samples. We also want
to thank Jonathan Husch who is a professor in the Department of Geological
and Marine Sciences at Rider University for spending days with us on measuring
the cations with ICP instrument in the lab. We thank the students Kimberly
Kessler, Alan Rapp, Jennifer Sliko and Russel Burke from the Soil Class
for participating in one of field trips and draw a soil profile. It is
the help from these people that makes accomplishment of the initial project
possible. Finally, we want to express our gratitude to Department of Geological
and Marine Sciences, Department of Biology at Rider University for access
to their instruments and van.
DISCLAIMER
Due to a stringent budget and limitation of time, some data measurements
were not repeated and conclusions were not from large sets of samples.
The limited data presented and conclusions drew in the report represent
the best judgement of the authors under current conditions. The opinions
presented here do not represent the opinions of any institutions and agencies
or claim their endorsement.
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